Table 1 Country-level estimates of the effects of the displayed variables on the risks of exiting unemployment and of entering unemployment in a seemingly unrelated regressions setup à la Zellner (1962)

\(\lambda _i\) (log-risk of exiting unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({0}.{777}^{***}\)

\({0}.{766}^{**}\)

\({0}.{849}^{***}\)

\({0}.{777}^{***}\)

\({1}.{018}^{***}\)

\({0}.{807}^{**}\)

0.281

(0.297)

(0.312)

(0.318)

(0.288)

(0.296)

(0.385)

(0.711)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

–

\({0}.{507}^{*}\)

–

–

\({0}.{614}^{*}\)

0.540

0.356

(0.306)

(0.315)

(0.329)

(0.413)

Employment in public sector (share)

–

− 0.920

–

–

\({-2}.{137}^{**}\)

\({-2}.{227}^{**}\)

\({-2}.{451}^{**}\)

(0.912)

(1.090)

(1.105)

(1.238)

ICT in the workplace (std)

–

− 0.180

–

–

− 0.164

− 0.012

0.365

(0.394)

(0.456)

(0.492)

(0.679)

Minimum relative to median wage

–

–

− 0.586

–

0.397

0.168

− 0.400

(1.038)

(0.945)

(0.989)

(1.250)

Trade union density

–

–

− 0.163

–

− 0.101

− 0.066

0.020

(0.443)

(0.441)

(0.446)

(0.499)

Unemployment benefits (level)

–

–

–

\({0}.{883}^{*}\)

\({0}.{965}^{*}\)

\({1}.{038}^{*}\)

\({1}.{219}^{*}\)

(0.490)

(0.552)

(0.564)

(0.650)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

–

–

–

0.129

0.228

0.114

− 0.168

(0.342)

(0.383)

(0.408)

(0.543)

Employment protection (regular)

–

–

–

− 0.179

\({- 0}.{220}^{**}\)

− 0.189

− 0.113

(0.117)

(0.111)

(0.117)

(0.153)

Employment protection (temporary)

–

–

–

− 0.065

− 0.007

− 0.013

− 0.027

(0.072)

(0.073)

(0.074)

(0.083)

Instrument for numeracy

–

–

–

–

–

numeracy

PISA

ages 16–19

math

\(R^2\, (\lambda _0^c)\)

0.246

0.366

0.279

0.514

0.667

0.660

0.590

Observations

30

30

29

27

27

27

27

\(\delta _i\) (log-risk of entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({-1}.{193}^{***}\)

\({- 0}.{982}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{321}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{224}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{231}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{575}^{***}\)

\({-2}.{144}^{**}\)

(0.317)

(0.336)

(0.340)

(0.382)

(0.389)

(0.509)

(0.926)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

–

0.076

–

–

− 0.203

− 0.323

− 0.521

(0.329)

(0.414)

(0.434)

(0.537)

Employment in public sector (share)

–

0.883

–

–

1.755

1.608

1.367

(0.983)

(1.433)

(1.460)

(1.611)

ICT in the workplace (std)

–

− 0.620

–

–

\({-1}.{205}^{**}\)

− 0.958

− 0.550

(0.424)

(0.600)

(0.650)

(0.883)

Minimum relative to median wage

–

–

−1.455

–

\({-2}.{671}^{**}\)

\({-3}.{042}^{**}\)

\({-3}.{657}^{**}\)

(1.112)

(1.242)

(1.307)

(1.626)

Trade union density

–

–

0.528

–

− 0.317

− 0.260

− 0.167

(0.474)

(0.579)

(0.590)

(0.650)

Unemployment benefits (level)

–

–

–

0.450

\({1}.{560}^{**}\)

\({1}.{678}^{**}\)

\({1}.{874}^{**}\)

(0.651)

(0.727)

(0.745)

(0.846)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

–

–

–

− 0.198

\({-1}.{098}^{**}\)

\({-1}.{283}^{**}\)

\({-1}.{588}^{**}\)

(0.454)

(0.504)

(0.539)

(0.707)

Employment protection (regular)

–

–

–

− 0.095

− 0.126

− 0.076

0.007

(0.156)

(0.145)

(0.155)

(0.199)

Employment protection (temporary)

–

–

–

0.042

− 0.130

− 0.140

− 0.155

(0.095)

(0.096)

(0.098)

(0.107)

Instrument for numeracy

–

–

–

–

–

numeracy

PISA

ages 16–19

math

\(R^2\, (\delta _0^c)\)

0.361

0.451

0.410

0.395

0.593

0.581

0.510

Observations

30

30

29

27

27

27

27

\(\lambda _i-\delta _i\) (log-risk-ratio of exiting to entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({1}.{969}^{***}\)

\({1}.{748}^{***}\)

\({2}.{170}^{***}\)

\({2}.{001}^{***}\)

\({2}.{249}^{***}\)

\({2}.{382}^{***}\)

\({2}.{425}^{***}\)

(0.409)

(0.399)

(0.449)

(0.442)

(0.397)

(0.513)

(0.863)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

–

0.431

–

–

\({0}.{816}^{*}\)

\({0}.{862}^{**}\)

\({0}.{877}^{*}\)

(0.392)

(0.422)

(0.438)

(0.501)

Employment in public sector (share)

–

−1.804

–

–

\({-3}.{892}^{***}\)

\({-3}.{835}^{***}\)

\({-3}.{817}^{**}\)

(1.169)

(1.461)

(1.471)

(1.502)

ICT in the workplace (std)

–

0.440

–

–

\({1}.{041}^{*}\)

0.946

0.915

(0.504)

(0.612)

(0.655)

(0.824)

Minimum relative to median wage

–

–

0.869

–

\({3}.{068}^{**}\)

\({3}.{211}^{**}\)

\({3}.{257}^{**}\)

(1.465)

(1.267)

(1.317)

(1.517)

Trade union density

–

–

− 0.691

–

0.216

0.194

0.187

(0.624)

(0.591)

(0.594)

(0.606)

Unemployment benefits (level)

–

–

–

0.433

− 0.595

− 0.640

− 0.655

(0.752)

(0.741)

(0.751)

(0.789)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

–

–

–

0.327

\({1}.{326}^{***}\)

\({1}.{397}^{**}\)

\({1}.{420}^{**}\)

(0.525)

(0.514)

(0.543)

(0.659)

Employment protection (regular)

–

–

–

− 0.084

− 0.094

− 0.113

− 0.119

(0.180)

(0.148)

(0.156)

(0.186)

Employment protection (temporary)

–

–

–

− 0.107

0.123

0.127

0.128

(0.110)

(0.098)

(0.098)

(0.100)

Instrument for numeracy

–

–

–

–

–

numeracy

PISA

ages 16–19

math

\(R^2\, (\lambda _0^c-\delta _0^c)\)

0.485

0.624

0.512

0.613

0.797

0.796

0.795

Observations

30

30

29

27

27

27

27