Fig. 1

Employment density. The figure shows the number of workers in \(1\times 1\) kilometer grid cells in Berlin (upper panel, 759 grids) and Munich (bottom panel, 289 grids) in 2000, 2010 and 2017. Light purple cells indicate a low number of workers, and dark purple cells indicate a high number. We fixed the color scale for each feature so that it approximately ranges from the first to the ninth decile in all cities with more than 100,000 inhabitants. The data base of the maps is social security data from the IAB, even though we exclude chain-store industries from the workplace data. For data protection reasons, we removed cells with fewer than 20 residents. Blue areas in the background represent water; green areas, forests; light yellow areas, settlements; solid gray lines, roads; and dashed gray lines, railroads