Table 6 Country-level estimates of the effects of the displayed variables on the risks of exiting unemployment and of entering unemployment in a seemingly unrelated regressions setup à la Zellner (1962)

Numeracy (std)

\({1}.{022}^{***}\)

0.336

0.128

0.183

− 0.155

− 0.194

− 0.476

(0.354)

(0.560)

(0.560)

(0.503)

(0.515)

(0.456)

(0.468)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

0.546

− 0.159

0.001

− 0.319

− 0.297

− 0.111

− 0.071

(0.479)

(0.595)

(0.595)

(0.535)

(0.547)

(0.484)

(0.497)

Employment in public sector (share)

\({-4}.{015}^{***}\)

\({-4}.{296}^{**}\)

\({-3}.{969}^{*}\)

\({-3}.{405}^{*}\)

-2.924

\({-3}.{617}^{**}\)

\({-3}.{234}^{*}\)

(1.352)

(2.062)

(2.062)

(1.852)

(1.896)

(1.678)

(1.722)

ICT in the workplace (std)

\({1}.{104}^{**}\)

\({2}.{680}^{***}\)

\({2}.{920}^{***}\)

\({2}.{653}^{***}\)

\({3}.{078}^{***}\)

\({2}.{316}^{***}\)

\({2}.{696}^{***}\)

(0.563)

(0.863)

(0.863)

(0.775)

(0.793)

(0.702)

(0.721)

Minimum relative to median wage

1.777

2.900

2.740

2.368

2.302

1.457

1.501

(1.155)

(1.788)

(1.788)

(1.606)

(1.643)

(1.454)

(1.493)

Trade union density

0.040

0.115

0.134

− 0.172

− 0.071

0.300

0.363

(0.543)

(0.834)

(0.834)

(0.749)

(0.766)

(0.678)

(0.696)

Unemployment benefits (level)

0.185

− 0.599

− 0.726

− 0.447

− 0.697

− 0.511

− 0.751

(0.664)

(1.046)

(1.046)

(0.939)

(0.961)

(0.851)

(0.873)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

\({1}.{110}^{*}\)

\({1}.{493}^{**}\)

\({1}.{662}^{**}\)

\({1}.{351}^{**}\)

\({1}.{510}^{**}\)

0.850

\({1}.{043}^{*}\)

(0.581)

(0.725)

(0.725)

(0.651)

(0.667)

(0.590)

(0.606)

Employment protection (regular)

\({-0}.{273}^{*}\)

\({-0}.{361}^{*}\)

\({-0}.{376}^{*}\)

\({-0}.{384}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{359}^{*}\)

\({-0}.{401}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{385}^{**}\)

(0.166)

(0.209)

(0.209)

(0.188)

(0.192)

(0.170)

(0.175)

Employment protection (temporary)

\({0}.{152}^{*}\)

\({0}.{240}^{*}\)

\({0}.{252}^{*}\)

0.193

\({0}.{217}^{*}\)

\({0}.{191}^{*}\)

\({0}.{217}^{*}\)

(0.089)

(0.138)

(0.138)

(0.124)

(0.127)

(0.112)

(0.115)

\(R^2\) (\(\lambda _0^c\))

0.674

0.526

0.567

0.573

0.601

0.599

0.628

Observations

25

27

27

27

27

27

27

\(\delta _i\) (log-risk of entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({-1}.{237}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{294}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{481}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{254}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{570}^{***}\)

\({-0}.{789}^{*}\)

\({-1}.{069}^{**}\)

(0.287)

(0.400)

(0.436)

(0.409)

(0.463)

(0.446)

(0.481)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

\({-0}.{785}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{718}^{*}\)

− 0.736

− 0.488

− 0.514

− 0.352

− 0.349

(0.389)

(0.426)

(0.463)

(0.434)

(0.492)

(0.474)

(0.511)

Employment in public sector (share)

− 0.804

− 1.228

− 1.119

− 1.384

− 1.059

− 0.764

− 0.488

(1.097)

(1.474)

(1.604)

(1.505)

(1.705)

(1.643)

(1.770)

ICT in the workplace (std)

0.322

0.553

0.877

0.691

\({1}.{270}^{*}\)

0.399

0.833

(0.456)

(0.617)

(0.671)

(0.630)

(0.713)

(0.688)

(0.741)

Minimum relative to median wage

− 1.041

− 0.385

− 0.433

0.079

0.096

0.785

0.831

(0.937)

(1.278)

(1.390)

(1.305)

(1.478)

(1.424)

(1.535)

Trade union density

0.078

\({1}.{207}^{**}\)

\({1}.{327}^{**}\)

\({1}.{371}^{**}\)

\({1}.{429}^{**}\)

0.895

0.948

(0.440)

(0.596)

(0.648)

(0.608)

(0.689)

(0.664)

(0.716)

Unemployment benefits (level)

0.843

0.163

0.022

− 0.272

− 0.570

− 0.418

− 0.615

(0.538)

(0.747)

(0.813)

(0.763)

(0.864)

(0.833)

(0.898)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

− 0.756

− 0.090

− 0.027

0.089

0.375

0.552

0.769

(0.471)

(0.518)

(0.564)

(0.529)

(0.599)

(0.578)

(0.622)

Employment protection (regular)

− 0.016

\({-0}.{298}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{268}^{*}\)

\({-0}.{274}^{*}\)

− 0.243

\({-0}.{378}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{375}^{**}\)

(0.134)

(0.150)

(0.163)

(0.153)

(0.173)

(0.167)

(0.180)

Employment protection (temporary)

0.062

0.100

0.112

\({0}.{175}^{*}\)

\({0}.{215}^{*}\)

0.144

0.175

(0.072)

(0.098)

(0.107)

(0.101)

(0.114)

(0.110)

(0.118)

\(R^2\) (\(\delta _0^c\))

0.662

0.603

0.580

0.536

0.543

0.442

0.475

Observations

25

27

27

27

27

27

27

\(\lambda _i-\delta _i\) (log-risk-ratio of exiting to entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({2}.{258}^{***}\)

\({1}.{630}^{***}\)

\({1}.{609}^{***}\)

\({1}.{437}^{***}\)

\({1}.{415}^{***}\)

\({0}.{595}^{**}\)

\({0}.{593}^{**}\)

(0.399)

(0.362)

(0.357)

(0.373)

(0.376)

(0.289)

(0.292)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

\({1}.{331}^{**}\)

0.559

\({0}.{737}^{*}\)

0.169

0.216

0.242

0.277

(0.540)

(0.385)

(0.379)

(0.396)

(0.400)

(0.308)

(0.310)

Employment in public sector (share)

\({-3}.{211}^{**}\)

\({-3}.{068}^{**}\)

\({-2}.{850}^{**}\)

− 2.021

− 1.865

\({-2}.{853}^{***}\)

\({-2}.{746}^{**}\)

(1.524)

(1.335)

(1.314)

(1.373)

(1.386)

(1.066)

(1.074)

ICT in the workplace (std)

0.782

\({2}.{127}^{***}\)

\({2}.{043}^{***}\)

\({1}.{962}^{***}\)

\({1}.{808}^{***}\)

\({1}.{917}^{***}\)

\({1}.{863}^{***}\)

(0.634)

(0.559)

(0.550)

(0.575)

(0.580)

(0.446)

(0.449)

Minimum relative to median wage

\({2}.{818}^{**}\)

\({3}.{285}^{***}\)

\({3}.{173}^{***}\)

\({2}.{289}^{*}\)

\({2}.{206}^{*}\)

0.672

0.670

(1.302)

(1.157)

(1.139)

(1.191)

(1.202)

(0.924)

(0.931)

Trade union density

− 0.038

\({-1}.{092}^{**}\)

\({-1}.{193}^{**}\)

\({-1}.{543}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{499}^{***}\)

− 0.595

− 0.585

(0.612)

(0.540)

(0.531)

(0.555)

(0.560)

(0.431)

(0.434)

Unemployment benefits (level)

− 0.658

− 0.762

− 0.748

− 0.176

− 0.127

− 0.093

− 0.136

(0.748)

(0.677)

(0.666)

(0.696)

(0.703)

(0.540)

(0.544)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

\({1}.{866}^{***}\)

\({1}.{583}^{***}\)

\({1}.{690}^{***}\)

\({1}.{262}^{***}\)

\({1}.{135}^{**}\)

0.298

0.273

(0.654)

(0.469)

(0.462)

(0.483)

(0.487)

(0.375)

(0.377)

Employment protection (regular)

− 0.258

− 0.063

− 0.108

− 0.111

− 0.116

− 0.023

− 0.011

(0.187)

(0.135)

(0.133)

(0.139)

(0.141)

(0.108)

(0.109)

Employment protection (temporary)

0.091

0.140

0.140

0.018

0.002

0.047

0.042

(0.100)

(0.089)

(0.088)

(0.092)

(0.093)

(0.071)

(0.072)

\(R^2\) (\(\lambda _0^c-\delta _0^c\))

0.810

0.831

0.836

0.821

0.817

0.892

0.890

Observations

25

27

27

27

27

27

27