Table 5 Country-level estimates of the effects of the displayed variables on the risks of exiting unemployment and of entering unemployment in a seemingly unrelated regressions setup à la Zellner (1962)

\(\lambda _i\) (log-risk of exiting unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({0}.{749}^{**}\)

\({1}.{485}^{***}\)

\({0}.{706}^{**}\)

\({1}.{582}^{***}\)

0.614

\({1}.{074}^{***}\)

\({1}.{109}^{***}\)

(0.340)

(0.395)

(0.280)

(0.605)

(0.447)

(0.394)

(0.418)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

\({0}.{700}^{**}\)

0.590

0.541

\({1}.{394}^{*}\)

− 0.096

\({1}.{077}^{***}\)

\({0}.{618}^{*}\)

(0.329)

(0.442)

(0.360)

(0.779)

(0.454)

(0.350)

(0.358)

Employment in public sector (share)

0.114

\({-3}.{704}^{***}\)

\({-1}.{731}^{*}\)

0.168

\({-3}.{579}^{**}\)

0.165

− 0.341

(1.274)

(1.248)

(1.007)

(1.737)

(1.461)

(1.798)

(1.035)

ICT in the workplace (std)

− 0.270

− 0.717

0.059

− 0.552

0.787

− 0.386

− 0.311

(0.406)

(0.561)

(0.434)

(0.897)

(0.819)

(0.382)

(0.404)

Minimum relative to median wage

− 0.266

0.392

1.126

3.060

2.132

0.094

0.267

(1.068)

(1.248)

(1.012)

(2.154)

(1.547)

(1.047)

(1.132)

Trade union density

− 0.356

0.678

− 0.781

0.440

0.305

− 0.462

0.069

(0.478)

(0.571)

(0.478)

(0.944)

(0.677)

(0.611)

(0.510)

Unemployment benefits (level)

0.698

0.383

\({1}.{693}^{***}\)

− 0.228

0.634

\({1}.{106}^{*}\)

− 0.341

(0.623)

(0.746)

(0.613)

(1.354)

(0.794)

(0.649)

(0.727)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

0.365

0.254

0.159

1.154

0.566

0.247

0.257

(0.420)

(0.532)

(0.414)

(0.870)

(0.601)

(0.456)

(0.484)

Employment protection (regular)

\({-0}.{212}^{*}\)

− 0.227

\({-0}.{262}^{**}\)

\({-0}.{533}^{**}\)

− 0.066

\({-0}.{293}^{**}\)

− 0.007

(0.128)

(0.146)

(0.116)

(0.249)

(0.168)

(0.134)

(0.138)

Employment protection (temporary)

− 0.014

− 0.039

0.030

0.110

0.019

− 0.013

− 0.074

(0.078)

(0.095)

(0.079)

(0.182)

(0.103)

(0.082)

(0.086)

\(R^2\) (\(\lambda _0^c\))

0.538

0.665

0.655

0.584

0.459

0.683

0.528

Observations

27

27

27

27

26

26

26

\(\delta _i\) (log-risk of entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({-1}.{918}^{***}\)

− 0.243

\({-1}.{220}^{***}\)

− 0.577

− 0.480

− 0.606

\({-1}.{788}^{***}\)

(0.485)

(0.500)

(0.428)

(0.626)

(0.479)

(0.497)

(0.514)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

− 0.319

0.496

− 0.635

− 0.969

\({-1}.{341}^{***}\)

− 0.449

− 0.240

(0.468)

(0.559)

(0.551)

(0.805)

(0.486)

(0.440)

(0.441)

Employment in public sector (share)

0.039

0.037

\({5}.{115}^{***}\)

\({3}.{258}^{*}\)

\({6}.{973}^{***}\)

\({4}.{028}^{*}\)

0.318

(1.817)

(1.581)

(1.540)

(1.796)

(1.564)

(2.265)

(1.273)

ICT in the workplace (std)

− 0.148

\({-2}.{474}^{***}\)

− 0.141

0.084

\({2}.{212}^{**}\)

0.296

0.157

(0.579)

(0.711)

(0.664)

(0.927)

(0.877)

(0.481)

(0.497)

Minimum relative to median wage

-1.010

-1.710

\({-4}.{373}^{***}\)

-1.485

\({-2}.{793}^{*}\)

− 0.958

-1.651

(1.522)

(1.582)

(1.548)

(2.226)

(1.656)

(1.318)

(1.392)

Trade union density

0.884

0.068

\({-2}.{446}^{***}\)

− 0.976

\({-2}.{195}^{***}\)

− 0.916

− 0.055

(0.681)

(0.724)

(0.731)

(0.976)

(0.725)

(0.769)

(0.627)

Unemployment benefits (level)

0.297

\({1}.{712}^{*}\)

\({2}.{578}^{***}\)

− 0.887

0.958

0.476

− 0.191

(0.888)

(0.945)

(0.938)

(1.399)

(0.850)

(0.818)

(0.894)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

− 0.193

\({-1}.{672}^{**}\)

− 0.984

− 0.443

\({1}.{477}^{**}\)

− 0.601

− 0.974

(0.599)

(0.674)

(0.632)

(0.899)

(0.644)

(0.574)

(0.596)

Employment protection (regular)

0.082

− 0.260

− 0.285

− 0.410

\({-0}.{714}^{***}\)

\({-0}.{389}^{**}\)

\({0}.{330}^{*}\)

(0.183)

(0.185)

(0.178)

(0.257)

(0.180)

(0.169)

(0.169)

Employment protection (temporary)

0.014

\({-0}.{230}^{*}\)

− 0.062

− 0.132

0.180

0.017

− 0.130

(0.112)

(0.121)

(0.121)

(0.188)

(0.110)

(0.103)

(0.105)

\(R^2\) (\(\delta _0^c\))

0.590

0.476

0.636

0.474

0.646

0.483

0.530

Observations

27

27

27

27

26

26

26

\(\lambda _i-\delta _i\) (log-risk-ratio of exiting to entering unemployment)

Numeracy (std)

\({2}.{666}^{***}\)

\({1}.{728}^{***}\)

\({1}.{926}^{***}\)

\({2}.{159}^{***}\)

\({1}.{093}^{**}\)

\({1}.{680}^{***}\)

\({2}.{897}^{***}\)

(0.424)

(0.486)

(0.442)

(0.332)

(0.501)

(0.580)

(0.464)

Logarithmized GDP per capita (PPP)

\({1}.{019}^{**}\)

0.094

\({1}.{175}^{**}\)

\({2}.{363}^{***}\)

\({1}.{245}^{**}\)

\({1}.{526}^{***}\)

\({0}.{858}^{**}\)

(0.409)

(0.544)

(0.569)

(0.427)

(0.508)

(0.514)

(0.398)

Employment in public sector (share)

0.075

\({-3}.{742}^{**}\)

\({-6}.{846}^{***}\)

\({-3}.{090}^{***}\)

\({-10}.{553}^{***}\)

-3.862

− 0.659

(1.587)

(1.537)

(1.593)

(0.953)

(1.636)

(2.643)

(1.149)

ICT in the workplace (std)

− 0.121

\({1}.{756}^{**}\)

0.200

− 0.636

-1.424

− 0.682

− 0.467

(0.506)

(0.691)

(0.687)

(0.492)

(0.917)

(0.561)

(0.448)

Minimum relative to median wage

0.744

2.101

\({5}.{500}^{***}\)

\({4}.{544}^{***}\)

\({4}.{925}^{***}\)

1.052

1.918

(1.330)

(1.538)

(1.600)

(1.182)

(1.732)

(1.539)

(1.256)

Trade union density

\({-1}.{240}^{**}\)

0.610

\({1}.{665}^{**}\)

\({1}.{416}^{***}\)

\({2}.{500}^{***}\)

0.454

0.124

(0.595)

(0.704)

(0.756)

(0.518)

(0.758)

(0.898)

(0.566)

Unemployment benefits (level)

0.401

-1.329

− 0.885

0.658

− 0.324

0.631

− 0.150

(0.775)

(0.918)

(0.969)

(0.743)

(0.889)

(0.955)

(0.807)

Unemployment benefits (degression)

0.558

\({1}.{926}^{***}\)

\({1}.{143}^{*}\)

\({1}.{597}^{***}\)

− 0.911

0.848

\({1}.{232}^{**}\)

(0.523)

(0.655)

(0.654)

(0.477)

(0.673)

(0.670)

(0.538)

Employment protection (regular)

\({-0}.{293}^{*}\)

0.034

0.023

− 0.123

\({0}.{649}^{***}\)

0.095

\({-0}.{337}^{**}\)

(0.160)

(0.180)

(0.184)

(0.136)

(0.189)

(0.197)

(0.153)

Employment protection (temporary)

− 0.028

0.190

0.092

\({0}.{242}^{**}\)

− 0.161

− 0.030

0.056

(0.097)

(0.117)

(0.125)

(0.100)

(0.116)

(0.120)

(0.095)

\(R^2\) (\(\lambda _0^c-\delta _0^c\))

0.780

0.693

0.674

0.805

0.713

0.689

0.797

Observations

27

27

27

27

26

26

26