Fig. 4

Average Incidence of Over-/Undereducation in Europe. Source: Authors’ calculations based on ESS data. The figure shows unweighted averages based on data from countries appearing in all six ESS rounds (Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK). The shaded area shows the range of incidence across countries. Labelled points outside shaded areas represent countries with a significantly different incidence of skills mismatch from other countries in a particular round. These outliers have an incidence outside the interval \(\left[p_{25} - 1.5 \times IQR, p_{75} + 1.5 \times IQR\right]\), where \(p_{i}\) is ith percentile of the incidence distribution in a given round and IQR is the interquantile range. The outliers are excluded from the average values.